These papers focus on research on parenting and its implications for youth. Papers are intended for educational use.
2010
Abstract: Previous research suggests that serious maternal mental illness is associated with adverse youth outcomes. However, this research is of limited ability to inform appropriate social work and social policy responses for at least two reasons. First, it is based on samples that are not racially or ethnically diverse and that do not target low-income families; second, it does not examine whether differences in the level of father involvement or the severity of maternal mental illness matter. This study involves a low-income, racially and ethnically diverse sample of mothers with a serious mental illness and their 11–18-year-old children and examines parent effects on youths. Fathers were in contact but mostly were not live-in parents. Structural equation modeling yields three key results: better maternal functioning and more paternal involvement predict better academic outcomes; less paternal involvement and more maternal health problems predict higher youth-reported affiliative skills; and more paternal involvement predicts less youth-reported problem behavior.
2008
Abstract: Serious mental illnesses (SMI) and problems with parenting are associated, but the link between change in psychiatric symptoms and change in parenting over time has not been examined. Three hypotheses were tested. Hypothesis 1: As symptoms decline, parenting stress will decline and parenting nurturance will improve. Hypothesis 2: High prior levels of symptoms have a continuing impact on parenting over time, persisting even when symptoms remit. Hypothesis 3: Both symptoms and parenting are influenced by contextual factors; taking these into account diminishes the association between them. With the use of latent growth curve modeling and an economically and racially diverse sample of mothers with SMI (N = 294), evidence supporting Hypothesis 1 was found, but there was no support for Hypothesis 2. For Hypothesis 3, contextual factors predicted both symptoms and parenting; accounting for context diminished the association between symptoms and parenting stress, but context did not completely explain the association between symptoms and parenting.
2007
Abstract: Increased parent school involvement is associated with better academic outcomes; yet, proximal contributors to this effect remain understudied. We focus on one potential proximal contributor, youth’s positive and negative future self-images or “possible selves,” reasoning that if parent school involvement fosters possible selves, then interventions aimed at enhancing youths’ possible selves should moderate the negative effect of low parent school involvement. We examine a 2-year follow-up of a randomized clinical trial of a possible self-based intervention (N= 239), demonstrating with regression equations that the intervention moderated the association of low parent school involvement with worse grades and less school-engaged behavior. Low parent school involvement negatively influenced achievement among control, not intervention youth, suggesting that school-based, possible self-focused interventions can moderate the undermining effect of low parent school involvement.
2006
Abstract: Children of parents with mental illness are at risk of psychiatric and behavioral problems. Few studies have investigated the psychosocial outcomes of these children in adulthood or the parental psychiatric history variables that predict resilience. From a sample of 379 mothers with serious mental illnesses, 157 women who had at least one adult child between the ages of 18 and 30 were interviewed. Mothers reported that about 80 percent of these adult children were working, in school, or in training. However, about one-third had not completed high school, and 54 percent were judged to have a major problem in psychological, drug or alcohol,or legal domains. Although nearly 40 percent were parents of minor children, only about 12 percent were in a committed relationship. Mothers’ bipolar diagnosis was a significant predictor for number of adult child problems. The results indicate a need for more attention to the parenting status of adults with mental illnesses and to their parenting concerns and needs.
2005
Abstract: Maternal mental health (MMH) problems are associated with lack of confidence in one’s parenting, overly lax or too harsh discipline, and child academic underperformance. We asked if parenting mediates the effect of MMH problems on academic outcomes even among mothers with serious mental illness (n=164). Structural equation analyses show a significant association between MMH problems and permissive (lack of parenting confidence, lack of follow through) parenting and verbal hostility as well as worse academic outcomes (school recorded grades, teacher reported behaviour). Permissive parenting completely mediated the direct effect of MMH on academic outcomes. Further analyses showed that the mediation effect was attributed to a single component of permissive parenting—lack of parenting confidence.
Abstract: The timing of mental illness onset in relationship to birth of children was explored as a possible indicator of the extent to which mothers experienced difficulties in parenting and functioning. Analyses employed data from a longitudinal study of urban-based, primarily minority mothers with mental illness (N = 379) who had parenting responsibility for their minor children. We found that women who were parents first and experienced mental illness onset after the birth of all their children showed the most positive trajectories over the study course. Mothers whose mental illness onset occurred before the birth of any of their children also showed improvements in functioning and symptomatology over time. In contrast, mothers whose mental illness onset had occurred in temporal proximity to the birth of a child showed little improvement. They also were younger, on average, at first birth, and had the largest number of children. Thus, timing of mental illness onset and childbirth may be predictive of longer-term maternal functioning and therefore may be useful in clinical assessment and treatment.
Abstract: Maternal depression has been associated with mothers’ elevated reports of child problems. However, it is unclear the extent to which elevations in mother ratings reflect having a depression diagnosis, having any mental illness diagnosis, or having a diagnosis vs. symptom levels. As part of a NIMH-funded, longitudinal study of mothers with serious mental illness (N=379), we examined the relationship between mother-reported adolescent behavior problems (N=78) and maternal depression vs. other diagnoses, as well as the effects of depression diagnosis vs. symptom levels. Mothers were recruited from the public mental health system in an urban area, and are primarily African-American and low income. We found that maternal psychiatric symptoms made a unique and significant contribution to explaining the variance in mother-reported child problems, independent of controls (e.g., teacher reports and child demographics), while maternal diagnosis did not. Implications of findings are discussed.
Abstract: This article examines the effects of living arrangements on the well-being of mothers with a serious mental illness. Analyses of data from a National Institute of Mental Health-funded study of an urban, primarily African American sample of 379 mothers with mental illness revealed few differences in parenting or social functioning between mothers living with their children and a spouse or partner and those living with their children only. However, mothers living with their children and extended family had significantly better outcomes than women in the other two living arrangements. Structural equation modeling analyses indicated that living with relatives significantly related to mothers’ well-being (social functioning and parenting) above and beyond relatives’ provision of social support. Multilevel modeling revealed racial differences in the effects of living with relatives on functioning and parenting stress: Effects were positive for African American mothers but mixed for white American mothers.
Abstract: The timing of mental illness onset in relationship to birth of children was explored as a possible indicator of the extent to which mothers experienced difficulties in parenting and functioning. Analyses employed data from a longitudinal study of urban-based,primarily minority mothers with mental illness (N = 379) who had parenting responsibility for their minor children. We found that women who were parents first and experienced mental illness onset after the birth of all their children showed the most positive trajectories over the study course. Mothers whose mental illness onset occurred before the birth of any of their children also showed improvements in functioning and symptomatology over time. In contrast, mothers whose mental illness onset had occurred in temporal proximity to the birth of a child showed little improvement.They also were younger, on average, at first birth, and had the largest number of children. Thus, timing of mental illness onset and childbirth may be predictive of longer-term maternal functioning and therefore may be useful in clinical assessment and treatment.
2004
Abstract: Children of parents with mental illness are an at-risk population according to research on psychiatric outcomes using White, middle-class samples of depressed parents and infants and preschool children.The current study expands this evidence by exploring within-group heterogeneity across psychosocial outcomes, in a racially diverse, low-income sample of adolescent children of mothers with mental illness (N = 166). Using measures of mental health, academics, behavior problems, and social relationships-and employing cluster analysis methodology-we identified five meaningful subgroups of these youth.Two of five identified clusters evidenced mental health symptoms (15%) or possible behavioral problems (27%).The largest cluster (30%) appeared quite socially and academically competent; another cluster (22%) presented as average in their functioning but adult-oriented. A final small cluster (4.8%) was distinguished by members’ social isolation. Cluster membership related to maternal substance abuse history, father’s relationship to youth, and social support available to mothers. Implications for planning preventive interventions are discussed.
2003
Abstract: Published research on the effects of parental mental illness diagnosis or symptoms on childhood substance abuse (SA) is reviewed. Family and environmental circumstances related to having a parent with a mental illness also put these children at risk for SA. Risk and protective factors for developing a substance use or related disorder in these children are summarized. Recommendations for SA prevention in children of parents with mental illness are presented and used to critique existing substance abuse prevention programs. Limitations of the research include lack of participant racial/ethnic diversity, inconsistent results, methodological flaws, and few efficacy studies.
2002
Abstract: Positive parenting is hampered by social-contextual risks—lack of income, education, and support, as well as maternal mental illness—but current models do not examine the effect of each factor in concert with the others. Using structural equation modeling and a community sample (N= 202) of African American mothers diagnosed with depression, bipolar disorder, or schizophrenia, we examined the direct and indirect effects of poverty, maternal education, social support, material and social stress, current mental health, and psychiatric history on positive parenting attitudes, involvement in children’s education, and authoritative parenting style. The strongest predictors of parenting attitudes were stress and current mental health. Parenting attitudes were the strongest predictors of parent involvement and style but stress and current mental health were also predictive. Involvement was also predicted by maternal education and social support.
Abstract: The research literature associating maternal mental illness with problematic mental health outcomes of adolescent children typically controls for neither the effects of family stresses and lack of support, nor the effects of parenting style. To address this gap, we explore the effects of maternal psychiatric symptoms and community functioning on child outcomes in a diverse sample of seriously mentally ill women caringf for their teenaged children. In hierarchical multiple regression, for youth depression, we find effects for parenting style and maternal mental health; for youth anxiety and efficacy, effects involves the interplay between maternal symptoms and community functioning.
2001
Abstract: Individuals with a severe mental illness now have greater opportunities to pursue normal adult roles, including parenting. The research reported involved 379 women carrying out parenting responsibilities, recruited from the public mental health system in an urban area. The sample displayed great heterogeneity in educational levels, number of children, number of fathers for their children, and family living arrangements, except that most women were very poor. These women faced many significant stresses: living alone with their children, significant child behavior problems, and financial worries. Still, most of the women endorsed the significance of motherhood in their lives. Inattention by most mental health providers to parenting issues leaves many important needs unmet and is likely to have adverse consequences for these women and their children. Implications for psychosocial rehabilitation practice are discussed.
2000
Abstract: In the past few decades, deinstitutionalization and community-based rehabilitation and support programs have increased the likelihood that women with serious mental disorders will be parents and will raise their children. This review describes what is known about the parenting of these women, focusing on diagnosis, child characteristics, and other contextual effects.
1998
Abstract: The existence of sex bias in mental health treatment is a long standing issue but awareness of how this might effect the services provided to women with long-standing or chronic mental health issues is not yet well understood. In this chapter we review and organize this literature, beginning with a summary of demographic-linked differences and then discuss differences as applied to major areas of life functioning then turn to two major issues facing women with a serious mental illness (victimization and substance abuse).
1995
Abstract: Although women with serious mental illness have normal fertility rates, the literature points to multiple risk factors and a paucity of emotional and economic support during the initial phases of parenthood. Since most research has focused on child outcomes, the extent and nature of parenting problems experienced by these mothers are not adequately understood. An emphasis on the context of parenting and the meaning of pregnancy and childbearing to these mothers is called for and implications for research and clinical practice are discussed.
Abstract: Although women with serious mental illness have normal fertility rates, the literature points to multiple risk factors and a paucity of emotional and economic support during the initial phases of parenthood. Since most research has focused on child outcomes, the extent and nature of parenting problems experienced by these mothers are not adequately understood. An emphasis on the context of parenting and the meaning of pregnancy and childbearing to these mothers is called for and implications for research and clinical practice are discussed.
1994
Abstract: Reviewed literature published in the past decade that describes interventions for mothers with severe mental illness. These programs are then assessed against a psychosocial rehabilitation perspective focusing on the extent to which they focus simultaneously on developing needed skills and on ensuring supportive environments. Although all of the interventions had some components of the psychosocial rehabilitation framework, none fully reflected its principles. The interventions failed to assess the effects of the mother’s environment and the mother’s strengths. In addition, assessment of barriers to program participation and attainment of parenting goals were lacking in the programs described.
1993
Abstract: Direct and indirect effects of grandparents on maternal nurturance in teen mothers (TM) living in three-generational families were explored with path analytic techniques in a sample of 107 working-class families. Perceived support from the teen’s mother, grandparents’ nurturance toward the baby, and the presence of the grandfather as a father figure in the home were hypothesized as increasing TM nurturance. TM nurturance was found to be positively predicted by grandparent nurturance and negatively predicted by TM perceived support from her mother. The strongest predictor of TM nurturance was grandfather nurturance toward the baby.
Abstract: Direct and indirect effects of grandparents on maternal nurturance in teen mothers (TM) living in three-generational families were explored with path analytic techniques in a sample of 107 working-class families. Perceived support from the teen’s mother, grandparents’ nurturance toward the baby, and the presence of the grandfather as a father figure in the home were hypothesized as increasing TM nurturance. TM nurturance was found to be positively predicted by grandparent nurturance and negatively predicted by TM perceived support from her mother. The strongest predictor of TM nurturance was grandfather nurturance toward the baby.
1991
Abstract: The cognitive deficits and nonadaptive social functioning associated with children of teen mothers in the USA have been well-documented (Baldwin & Cain, 1980; Furstenberg, 1976; Furstenberg, Brooks-Gunn & Morgan, 1987; Phipps-Yonas, 1980). For example, these children tend to perform more poorly on intelligence and academic tests and to be more impulsive and distractible than peers born to older mothers. The scope of the problems can be expected to increase in the coming decade as data on parenting showing that the birthrate of unmarried adolescents 14- 18 years of age has been rising steadily since 1965…. ]
1987
Abstract: The design and development of unilateral family therapy is reported.