Turkish-Azerbaijani Military Cooperation

Understanding the various aspects of the collaboration between Turkey and Azerbaijan is vital for a better comprehension of the recent developments in Karabakh. In this context, the military collaboration between these two countries will shed light on the events, and underline points that must be considered from the perspective of Armenia and Armenians all around the world in the future. Analyzing Turkey’s changing policy from staying away from direct intervention in conflict in the 1990s over the Karabakh issue, to actively supporting Azerbaijan in military clashes in the 2020s will provide an opportunity to deeply inspect the developments in the Caucasus, and security risks that await Armenia and Karabakh Armenians.

The military cooperation between Turkey and Azerbaijan dates back to almost a hundred years ago. At a time when even the Republic of Turkey was not yet established when the republics of Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Georgia were created in the Caucasus, a military cooperation agreement was signed between the Ottoman Empire and Azerbaijan. The 4th article of the agreement, dated June 4, 1918, envisaged the Ottoman Empire would provide armed aid to Azerbaijan if desired. Today, we can say that the cooperation between the two countries, especially due to the developments of the last decade, is a deepened version of the agreement made at that time. This demonstrates the historical continuity in Turkish-Azerbaijani relations. At that time, Nuri Pasha, one of the generals of the Ottoman Army, formed a unit called the Caucasian Islamic Army and fought against Russian and Armenian forces. Similarly, Azerbaijanis also financially supported the Turkish National War. Although tangible cooperation could not be developed with Azerbaijan after the bolshevization of the three Caucasian republics as Turkey’s counterpart was directly the USSR, after Azerbaijan declared its independence in 1991, military cooperation between the two countries has gradually developed and particularly during the Karabakh War in 2020, it has become visibly intense. 

Military cooperation between Turkey and Azerbaijan is based on historical, ethnic and linguistic ties between the two states and two peoples, but it is also a result of geostrategic, regional and international balances that go far beyond this. Therefore, it is of great importance to examine the military relations between the two countries from different dimensions. On the other hand, the economic dimension of Azerbaijan-Turkey military cooperation is substantial and multifaceted, encompassing defense procurement, joint ventures, training programs, and strategic investments. This cooperation not only enhances the military capabilities of both nations but also contributes significantly to their economies. 

Especially since the 2000s, Azerbaijan’s transformation into a major energy power has increased the country’s integration with the Western world, and during the Ilham Aliyev period, it has made it easier for the country to maintain a balance between global and regional powers such as NATO, USA, EU, Russia, Iran and Turkey. On the other hand, the fact that Armenia does not have similar resources, combined with the negative effects of the economic embargo imposed by Azerbaijan and Turkey, has caused the country to be almost completely dependent on Russia in the field of security and economy, which has put Armenia in a difficult position both in terms of economic development and the Karabakh conflict. In this equation, the Azerbaijani aggression that resulted in the ethnic cleansing of the Karabakh people in 2023 was met with general silence in the world. 

Turkey’s quest to increase its influence in the Caucasus in terms of its national interests, its good relations with Azerbaijan and Georgia in the region, and its view of Armenia as a historical enemy, combined with its struggle against Russian influence in the region, make Turkey and Azerbaijan two allies. As in all countries that gained independence with the dissolution of the Soviets, the main priority in Azerbaijan in the early 90s was to ensure national security. The country’s energy resources and its geopolitical position due to its geographical proximity to Russia, Central Asia and Iran were important elements of the country’s defense and security equation. Turkey gave the greatest support to Azerbaijan in ensuring military development and increasing capacity. The relations initiated in the military-technical field were placed on a strong foundation with the establishment of a strategic partnership, and the areas of cooperation have now covered a number of areas, from military exercises to the common defense industry. It is possible to follow this entire process from the agreements and mechanisms established between the two countries. Therefore, it would not be wrong to say that the current form of relationship has a nature that transcends the changing governments and has turned into state policy.

With the global supply of oil and natural gas resources in the second half of the 1990s and the 2000s, Azerbaijan turned into an important alternative actor in the energy markets. Turkey’s diplomatic efforts in the 1990s are undeniable in establishing international integration and making Baku an actor of the global system. On the other hand, until the 2000s, military cooperation between Turkey and Azerbaijan remained limited compared to today. Because while Azerbaijan was a former Soviet country, Turkey was under the umbrella of NATO for many years. On the other hand, there have been changes in the US and NATO’s perspective on the region over time. Although the USA and NATO did not approve of Turkey providing direct military support to Azerbaijan in the 1990s, Azerbaijan became a member of the North Atlantic Cooperation Council (NAC) in 1992, which oversees the political and military process and has the authority to make political decisions regarding security issues affecting the alliance. has happened.

Following the Brussels Summit held in 1994, Azerbaijan was included in NATO’s Partnership for Peace (PfP) program. Turkey acted as a “contact country” between NATO and Azerbaijan until 2009. This entire process should be read as a result of the economic interest relationship that Azerbaijan, as an energy-rich country, has entered into with Western countries and Western companies. Azerbaijan, which provides natural gas to Europe and has signed huge collaborations with some major oil companies, has, in a sense, become an indispensable partner for the western great powers. Turkey, which is a part of the western system, has thus been able to expand its cooperation with Azerbaijan in every field in line with its own interests.

The first years of this cooperation were modest compared to today’s, but even the steps taken that day were meaningful and had significant results. For example, within the framework of the Military Education Cooperation Agreement signed in 1992, retired officers from Turkey contributed to the education of the Azerbaijani army, while 200 Azerbaijani students received education from military schools in Turkey. Meanwhile, it should not be forgotten that the first Karabakh war is ongoing and Azerbaijani forces are in conflict with Armenia and Karabakh Armenian forces. During this period, with Turkey’s initiatives, the OSCE made a decision stating that “the borders are inviolable and cannot be changed unilaterally”, which gives an idea about the international dimension of the relations. On March 14, 1992, Turkey announced that it would inspect planes passing through its airspace and going to Armenia in order to impose an arms embargo. On the other hand, although it is not officially accepted, it is known that many volunteers from Turkey participated in the Karabakh war in support of Azerbaijan during this period. The inclusion of NATO in the Partnership for Peace program in 1994 ushered in a new era in Azerbaijan’s relations with Turkey, the West and the USA. In June 1996, the Military Training, Technical and Scientific Cooperation Agreement was signed, covering the training of Turkey and the Azerbaijani Armed Forces. In this context, with the help of Turkish officers, Western curricula began to be created in the Azerbaijani Land, Air and Naval Schools, where the Soviet education system was implemented between 1992 and 1997. The military alliance with Turkey has meant that the training and functioning of the Azerbaijani Armed Forces have risen to NATO standards.

Since 1996, the Republic of Turkey has been providing free assistance to meet the needs of the Azerbaijani Armed Forces.Within the framework of military assistance, various military equipment was provided to the Ministry of Defense of the Republic of Azerbaijan. To date, more than 10,000 representatives of the Azerbaijani Army have attended various training courses held in Turkey. Currently, a group of Azerbaijani soldiers continue their education in Turkish educational institutions. According to the training and cooperation agreement signed in the field of military medicine, 100 Azerbaijani soldiers are treated free of charge in Turkey every year.

The joint participation of the two countries in international peacekeeping missions during the Heydar Aliyev period also constituted an important example of military cooperation. In this context, within the scope of the cooperation agreement signed between Azerbaijan and Turkey on October 20, 1999, the said Azerbaijani Peace Force elements were provided to take part in the Turkish Battalion Task Force affiliated with KFOR (Kosovo Force). This joint peacekeeping mission, which started in Kosovo, continued in Afghanistan for many years.

With a protocol signed between the Azerbaijani Ministry of Defense and the Turkish Naval Forces Command in 2000, it was decided to donate the TCG AB-34 (P-134) assault boat to Azerbaijan. On March 1, 2001, the Unrequited Military Assistance agreement between the Azerbaijani government and the Turkish government and the Financial Assistance protocol between the Azerbaijani Ministry of Defense and the Turkish General Staff were signed. Same year, during the tension between Iran and Azerbaijan, Turkish Stars, a unit of the Turkish Air Force, performed in Baku. In the same period, the Turkish Armed Forces provided training support especially to the troops in Nakhchivan, and military vehicles and construction equipment were donated to the Nakhchivan 5th Corps Command. At this point, it is stated that the 5th Corps, which is the special army forces of the Azerbaijani Armed Forces designed to carry out joint operations, is the unit with the highest combat level. TRG-300 KAPLAN Missile, Kasırga and Sakarya rocket launcher systems purchased from Turkey are also located in Nakhchivan. Turkish publications predict that these troops in Nakhchivan will play a critical role in a possible conflict with Armenia.

Turkey and Azerbaijan regard Armenia as a constant military and political threat. In the Military Doctrine adopted in Turkey in 2010, the occupation of some of the territory belonging to the Republic of Azerbaijan by the Armenian armed forces was considered as one of the main external military and political threats. In the same year, during the visit of Turkish President Abdullah Gül to Azerbaijan, the Strategic Partnership and Mutual Assistance Agreement was signed, and the High Level Strategic Cooperation Council was established, ensuring that relations were placed on a stronger basis. It is noteworthy that these steps were taken at a time when the rapprochement policy between Turkey and Armenia was at its peak and protocols were signed between the two countries.

The first article of the Association Agreement, which consists of twenty-three articles, stipulates that when the territorial integrity, sovereignty and inviolability of state borders of any of the parties are threatened or there is a danger to these elements, they will act together to eliminate the mentioned threats and dangers. According to the second article, if one of the parties is subjected to an armed attack by a third country or group of countries, the two countries will be able to provide mutual assistance to each other within the framework of the individual or common right of self-defense recognized by Article 51 of the UN Charter. Within the scope of the agreement, the parties have undertaken to assist each other in matters such as military consultation, exercises, and training of the armed forces. In article 9 of the agreement, mutual support for defense needs, joint exercises, logistics, training of military units and students, medicine and health issues are discussed within the framework of defense cooperation.

Military relations between the two countries have been one of the most important negotiation and cooperation issues of the Azerbaijan-Turkey High Level Strategic Cooperation Council, which was established under the co-chairmanship of the presidents in 2010. In the new period, the dimensions of joint military exercises in bilateral and trilateral formats, cooperation in the defense industry and establishment of joint law enforcement forces have been added to Azerbaijan-Turkey military relations. Joint military exercises have been held between the two countries for approximately fifteen years. For example, EFES, Anatolian Phoenix, Winter Training, Anatolian Star, Erciyes-2019, Anatolian Eagle, Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, Unshakable Brotherhood, TurAz Eagle – 2019 and Heydar Aliyev exercises. In addition, Azerbaijani Armed Forces personnel are invited to observe military exercises conducted by Turkey, and special exercises are held between the two countries at the bilateral level. On the other hand, Turkey and Azerbaijan cooperate within the framework of the Eurasian Military Status Law Enforcement Organization, which was established in Baku on January 25, 2013.

Turkey, which has made significant strides in expanding its defense system and military capabilities in recent years, is increasing its share in global trade year by year. Between 2018 and 2022, Turkey realized 1.1 percent of all global arms exports. A cooperation agreement in the field of defense industry was signed in Baku on 31 October 2017. It should be stated that with the change in political and economic conditions, Turkey’s support to Azerbaijan in the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict increased over the years and was decisive in the success the Second Karabakh War. Ankara, which offered not only diplomatic but also military and political support to Azerbaijan compared to 30 years ago, made statements declaring that it stood by Azerbaijan throughout the war. 

The armed unmanned aerial vehicle TB2, which can carry MAM laser-guided ammunition and used by Azerbaijan during the Second Karabakh War, is seen as one of the systems most effectively used against defense lines and moving targets. According to Azerbaijani data, during the war, TB2s destroyed 89 T-72 tanks, 29 armored vehicles, 131 artillery pieces, 61 rocket launchers, 543 trucks, 9 radar systems and 15 Surface-to-Air Missile (SAM) systems. Azerbaijani President Aliyev stated that Armenian ammunition worth more than 1 billion dollars was destroyed with the support of UCAVs. Air defenses in Nagorno-Karabakh consist mainly of old Soviet or Russian systems that are largely ineffective against Azerbaijani drones. Although Turkey did not intervene directly in the war, the fact that it deployed six F-16s to Ganja International Airport throughout the war is undoubtedly another psychological support given to Azerbaijan under war conditions.

The relations, which have been carried out at the level of strategic partnership since 2011, were raised to the level of alliance with the Shusha Declaration signed on June 15, 2021. In the Shusha Declaration, as in the Strategic Partnership Agreement, it was decided that the parties would act jointly in case of threats or attacks against any of the parties. The two countries will encourage working together to increase defense capabilities, exchange of military personnel, interoperability of armed forces, and contribute to the management of weapons and ammunition based on modern technology. The two countries, which have agreed to share technology in the fields of sea, air and space, have declared that they will support each other in the domestic and international markets in the development of defense industry technologies.

According to SIPRI, 20 Bayraktar TB-2 unmanned aerial vehicles, which Azerbaijan bought from Turkey in 2020, were delivered in 2023. Seljuk Bayraktar, executive director of the Baykar company, which produces those weapons, spoke about the purchase of AKINCI attack drones by Azerbaijan back in 2022. In April 2023, a memorandum of understanding was  signed between the Baykar company and Azerbaijan on the joint production of drones. Compared to the Bayraktar TB2, the AKINCI can fly higher, and the range of missiles and ammunition used is wider.

Diplomatic steps between the two countries have intensified, aiming to expand military and defense cooperation in the medium and long term. Bayraktar Technology Initiative was established in Baku to develop advanced and autonomous technologies and new generation technologies supported by artificial intelligence. Another important aspect of military cooperation between the parties is the expansion of cooperation in the field of defense industry. Organizing ADEX-2018 in Baku in 2018, IDEF-2019 and IDEF-2021 international defense industry fairs in Istanbul, and Turkish TECHNOFEST, which was held in Baku for the first time outside Turkey in 2022, accelerated the development of military-technical cooperation between the two countries. In addition, Azerbaijan cooperates in the military-technical field with Turkey’s military-industrial companies such as ASELSAN, HAVELSAN, AYESAŞ, MATEKSAN, MilSOFT, Netaş, Turkish Aerospace Industries. In this context, agreements were made on the control system for military ships, the purchase of armored vehicles, and joint missile production.

Turkey’s arms transfers to Azerbaijan seem to be linked not only to the strong economic ties and cultural links between the two countries, but also to Turkey’s broader foreign policy interests. Through strengthening relations with Azerbaijan, Turkey also appears to be expanding its political presence in the South Caucasus—notably in competition with Russia, currently the dominant power in the region. While Azerbaijan’s arms import volume is estimated by SIPRI to be 8.2 times greater than Armenia’s, it is stated that Russia was the primary exporter for both countries in the 2011-2020 period. During the said period, Russia provided 94 percent of Armenia’s arms imports and 60 percent of Azerbaijan’s. For Azerbaijan, Russia was followed by Israel, Belarus and Turkey, respectively. Turkey’s role in this field is gradually increasing.

It is seen that the military expenditures of Armenia and Azerbaijan have generally increased over the years. However, it can be seen that the military expenditures of Azerbaijan, whose GDP is approximately three and a half times that of Armenia, are generally more than Armenia’s at approximately the same rate. This difference makes a big difference between the military power of the two countries. Azerbaijan’s defense budget exceeded the threshold of 1 billion dollars. In 2019 and 2020, Azerbaijan spent 1.85 billion dollars and 2.24 billion dollars respectively, while Armenia spent 652 million dollars and 633 million dollars in the same years. Armenia could not exceed the 1 billion dollar threshold, which Azerbaijan exceeded in 2007, until 2022, despite its increased military expenditures after the Karabakh War. This shows how big the difference in the military power of the two countries has accumulated over the years. It is predicted that Armenia will exceed this threshold only in 2023 and 2024. On the other hand, Azerbaijan’s military expenditures are around 4 billion dollars.

Turkish-Azerbaijani cooperation, which started with the Caucasus Islamic Army in 1918, remained at a minimum level after Azerbaijan came under Soviet rule. However, after Azerbaijan gained its independence in 1991, relations between the two countries developed rapidly. The perception of a common enemy, embodied in Armenia, has increased the military cooperation between Turkey and Azerbaijan. Despite this, while Turkey’s NATO membership limited its support to Azerbaijan in the First Nagorno-Karabakh War, the expansion of Azerbaijan’s trade capacity based on natural resources over the years has made this country important for the Western world, and Turkey and Azerbaijan have become more important in the area opened by this change had the opportunity to engage in intense cooperation.

Until the Second Karabakh War, Azerbaijan used a significant part of its economic income to develop its military capabilities and capacity. In this process, Turkey’s support and assistance to Azerbaijan was important. While Azerbaijani military students are being educated in Turkey, Turkish officers had played important roles in Azerbaijani schools. The signing of the Strategic Partnership Agreement in 2010 enabled the deepening of military relations, and