{"id":1271,"date":"2024-02-19T14:30:00","date_gmt":"2024-02-19T22:30:00","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/dornsife.usc.edu\/scribe\/?p=1271"},"modified":"2026-10-06T10:31:56","modified_gmt":"2026-10-06T17:31:56","slug":"prisoner-reentry-employment-re-evaluating-self-efficacy","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/dornsife.usc.edu\/scribe\/2024\/02\/19\/prisoner-reentry-employment-re-evaluating-self-efficacy\/","title":{"rendered":"Prisoner Reentry & Employment: Re-evaluating Self-Efficacy"},"content":{"rendered":"\n

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Prisoner Reentry & Employment: Re-evaluating Self-Efficacy<\/h1>\n\n\n<\/div>\n \n
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\n\n \n Kaylee is a senior studying Non-Governmental Organizations and Social Change, with a minor in Social Work and Juvenile Justice. She was born and raised in Shanghai, China. She wrote this paper for WRIT 150, and she is interested in criminal justice and supporting the marginalized communities. She wrote this paper to highlight the difficulties that system impacted individuals encounter in the re-entry process. In the future, she hopes to work with international public interest groups and advocate in the broader human rights space.\n\n\n<\/div>\n <\/div>\n \n By<\/span>Kaylee Chen<\/strong>\n \n February 19, 2024<\/span>\n <\/div>\n<\/div>\n\n\n <\/div><\/div>\n\n \n \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n
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In the United States, a large number of prisoners face urgent employment barriers for reintegration upon their release. The United States imprisoned the greatest number of its citizens than any other country, and it houses approximately 25% of the world\u2019s total incarcerated population (Welbeck 1). No other country at the current moment or in the recorded history has put these many citizens behind bars. Each year, the United States prison releases more than 60,000\u00a0 American inmates, and around 874,800 are under parole supervision inside their communities\u00a0 (Petrich et al. 335). Although US\u2019s prison population has dropped, thanks to the rising number of releases, the number of people under community supervision within the carceral state is still astonishingly high. However, though people are seemingly returning to their communities,\u00a0 they return to society with nearly nothing because of the employment barrier. In the broader societal context of economic neo-liberalization, upon release and adjustments to parole, formerly incarcerated people face harsh realities like widespread unemployment (Cheliotis\u00a0 & McKay 696). According to Couloute and Kopf\u2019s quantitative research in 2018, the ex-inmates are unemployed at an excessively high rate of over 27%, which is five times greater than the general unemployment rate in any moment of the United States\u2019 history, including the era of the great depression (2). While successful reintegration is highly dependent on employment outcome,\u00a0 these cold hard facts demonstrate the prevalent employment barriers for reentry among the formerly incarcerated.<\/p>\n

In the context of formerly incarcerated individuals\u2019 employment hardships, Couloute and Kopf\u2019s study sought to gradually break down the employment barrier by looking at factors that contribute to the difficulties in securing employment, with self-efficacy at the center of discussion. Existing research articles provide a useful framework and starting point for understanding self-efficacy\u2019s important role in conditioning ex-prisoners\u2019 employment outcomes.\u00a0 David Pitts, a senior research associate interested in community reintegration of paroled lifers, highlights the correlation between lack of self-efficacy and underemployment (4). Pitts states that \u201cself efficacy is defined as belief in one\u2019s ability to succeed in specific situations or accomplish a task;\u00a0 this can greatly influence how an individual approaches challenges and goals\u201d (5). In particular,\u00a0 job search self-efficacy is defined as one\u2019s confidence in completing tasks in regard to obtaining a job (Saks et al.). He argues that ow job-search self-efficacy predisposed formerly incarcerated individuals to the concept that difficult tasks like finding jobs are beyond their capabilities. People lose confidence in their abilities and tend to avoid challenging tasks that they do not think they can handle. Regenold et al.\u2019s empirical research confirms the correlation between self-efficacy and employment outcome. In their research, data demonstrates that participants with a greater degree of self-efficacy were more likely to attain their employment goal than their counterparts with a lower degree of self-efficacy. Though existing research proves that self-efficacy is essential in determining successful employment outcomes,\u00a0 which is an integral part of reintegration and self-sustainability, there is a dearth of attempts to explore the factors that influence formerly incarcerated individuals\u2019 diminishing self-efficacy.<\/p>\n

Existing intellectual conversations revolving around the field of criminology often identify self-efficacy as an irreducible and single-axis measurement correlated with employment difficulties. However, instead of treating self-efficacy with a single-axis framework, I deem it important to analyze what emanates formerly incarcerated individuals\u2019 low self-efficacy with a multi-axis approach. Therefore, my attempt in this article is to, hopefully, explain why formerly incarcerated individuals often end up with low self-efficacy due to different layers of belittlement,\u00a0 which penetrates within the penal system and reinforces social stigma that leads to perceptible significantly higher barrier to employment. Expanding the predominant understanding of low self efficacy\u2019s correlation with unemployment, I believe that belittlement points toward approaches to effectively reform existing post-incarceration programs for self-efficacy restoration that may significantly boost individuals\u2019 employment goal attainment.<\/p>\n

In multiple social settings, belittlement has a proven record of downgrading people\u2019s general self-efficacy level. Belittlement is \u201cto make a person or an action seem as if he, she or it is not important\u201d (Cambridge Dictionary). At the workplace, belittlement represented by overly severe and harsh appraisals given by employers creates low self-efficacy among employees, who see themselves as unimportant and meaningless at the workplace (Agadoni). Referring back to\u00a0 Pitts\u2019 analysis on self-efficacy and employment attainment, in such undesirable professional settings, belittled individuals gradually lost faith in their ability to succeed in their current position or other potential job opportunities that better fit their skill sets. Comparably, belittlement also dwindles students\u2019 self-efficacy in the academic setting (Li et al. 485). Instructor\u2019s belittlement deters students from pursuing their academic interests, and loss of self-efficacy places significant barriers to their employment trajectory after graduation. Various research in fields other than criminology has discussed belittlement\u2019s correlation with low self-efficacy. Therefore,\u00a0 correspondingly belittlement can destroy formerly incarcerated individuals\u2019 self-efficacy and deter them from employment in different settings: within not only the penal system but also penetrates into civil society.<\/p>\n

Belittlement penetrates the penal system, and prison serves as a starting point for diminishing self-efficacy. The carceral state recognizes people under incarceration and community supervision as individuals incapable of carrying out ethical self-governance and being responsible citizens (Werth 4). The horrifying journey of belittlement starts when offenders enter prison. Nati recalled his nightmarish experience in the California State Prison. Correction officers dug through his personal items daily to check if he illegally possessed heroin.\u00a0 Even worse, during the body cavity search, officers forced him to take off his pants and squat down with other prisoners. Nati said, \u201cthe prison, the belittlement, want to destroy my confidence and\u00a0 destroy me as a person.\u201d This is only the start of the cruel journey of belittlement.<\/p>\n

Moving along the penal procedure from prison to parole and community supervision, the system continues to belittle individuals. Hannah-Moffat, Professor in Criminology at the\u00a0 University of Toronto, suggests parole subjects in the United States \u201c[are] required close monitoring and direction on how to make the necessary changes and choices,\u201d which resembles a de-responsibilizing parole system (Hannah-Moffat qtd. In Werth 2). In other words, the existing parole system rarely tells parolees that they have the freedom to choose how to act. Instead, parole focuses too much on the limiting nature of supervision, so individuals need to meet the conditions of parole before gaining ultimate freedom. As Werth suggests, Hannah-Moffatt\u2019s quote criticizes the parole system\u2019s de-responsibilizing nature, which produces the particular type of subject that is belittled and perceived as currently incapable of \u201cadequately exercising self-management\u201d (2).<\/p>\n

Roddy and Morash\u2019s quantitative research, \u201cThe Connections of Parole Communication\u00a0 Pattern and Self-Efficacy,\u201d epitomizes the parole system\u2019s structural problem of belittling individuals as incapable individuals of self-management, and such belittlement deters offenders\u2019 job-seeking self-efficacy. In their research, Roddy and Morash highlight\u00a0 parole officers\u2019 prevalent \u201cconformity communication orientation,\u201d which is the communication\u00a0 pattern \u201cbetween agents and their clients\u2026displayed through an emphasis on obedience to\u00a0 authority; stresses the importance of similar attitudes, values, and beliefs; and tightly regulates the\u00a0 flow of information and opinions.\u201d In other words, the parole system continues to deem formerly incarcerated people as unethical persons incapable of making the right decisions that benefit society on their own. Rather than believing individuals can comply with rules and act ethically,\u00a0 the parole system, represented by the parole officers, attempts to put individuals in frames that restrict freedom and individualization. The parole system overrides incarcerated individuals\u2019\u00a0 attempts to make personal decisions and explore individualized identity as if these individuals\u2019\u00a0 personhood and actions are frivolous. Such conformity-oriented communication patterns in parole cause diminishing self-efficacy, especially for job-seeking, which further reinforces unemployment and struggling reintegration. Parole officers should remember the rehabilitative goal of parole and take other communication approaches to guide ex-offenders back into their communities, instead of only focusing on limiting their freedom through belittling conversation styles to avoid unwanted recidivism.<\/p>\n

Belittlement pierces through the penal system and enters civil society, where social stigmas represent and reinforce belittlement. Oxford English Dictionary defines stigma as a \u201cdistinguishing mark or characteristic (of a bad or objectionable kind\u201d and a mark of disgrace and infamy (Tyler\u00a0 8). This is not a new concept- it\u2019s been around for centuries. Tracing back to ancient Greece, stigmas were physically tattooed inscriptions of \u201cwords, symbols, and sometimes full sentences into people\u2019s skin that mark them as outsiders of the society (Tyler\u00a0 35). \u201cThief,\u201d \u201cStop me,\u201d and \u201cknow thyself\u201d were the most common forms of stigmas on offenders\u2019\u00a0 foreheads (Tyler 35). These tattooed stigmas represent belittlement, for people from the higher social hierarchy intentionally belittle offenders and slaves to the bottom rung of the social hierarchy by inscribing belittling stigmas into their skin. These stigmatized people were eternally stuck in the lowest social hierarchy, with almost no access to other job opportunities, not to mention social mobility.<\/p>\n

Specifically, stigma\u2019s violent nature belittles people and communities. For formerly incarcerated communities, stigma can be physical representations like tattoos, rotten teeth, and gray sweatshirts distributed by the Department of Correction (DOC); stigma is also intangible, like slang uses and requirements to disclose criminal background. When employers meet job seekers with stereotypical social stigmas, they tend to turn down their request by considering candidates as someone with no professional skills and educational backgrounds.<\/p>\n

Modern society settles on the shadow of the past, and belittling social stigma creates perceptible job-hunting barriers for formerly incarcerated individuals, further depressing their remnant of self-efficacy. Varghese et al.\u2019s quantitative study concludes that \u201cperceiving higher barriers have been associated with lower career aspirations and lower self-efficacy;\u201d social stigma thereby lifts the employment barrier that further lowers formerly incarcerated people\u2019s job search self-efficacy. Pitts argues that \u201cemployers are often reluctant to hire an ex-offender, and the stigma associated with serving a life sentence is likely to create even more concern among those who would consider hiring a lifer\u201d (7). In other words, our society has stigmatized individuals with criminal records by connecting them with threats at the workplace. Though most people do not associate stigma with violence, stigma is a nuanced form of violent persecution that slowly and unobtrusively belittles people as outsiders. Influenced by social stigma, employers\u2019\u00a0 perceptions generate heightened barriers for the formerly incarcerated to locate entry-level jobs. Therefore, individuals lose their self-efficacy upon release because belittling social stigmas generate perceptible employment barriers. Understanding the factors that emanate low-self efficacy will help scholars and policymakers imagine new programs that promote self-efficacy.\u00a0 Parole procedure can better foster reintegration and employment outcomes if parole agents receive training emphasizing conversation-oriented communication patterns that preserve ex offenders\u2019 self-efficacy. Conversation-oriented communication \u201cencourages openness and participation in decision making,\u201d which helps individuals maintain higher self-efficacy and cope with employment challenges (Roddy and Morash 777). Monica Bell, a law professor at Yale\u00a0 University, in her research \u201cLegal Estrangement,\u201d calls for \u201ctraining officers to treat force as a last resort and \u2018\u2018to view every citizen contact as an opportunity to build legitimacy through the tone and quality of the interaction\u201d (2078). In other words, the parole system must provide proper officer training to avoid forceful and belittling conformity-oriented communication patterns.\u00a0 Individuals on parole are citizens of our nation whose dignity and personhood should be respected equally. Therefore, to fully legitimize parole\u2019s goal of supporting reintegration, policymakers should prioritize training that reminds officers to encourage individuals with conversation-oriented communication. If more parole officers can use more encouraging verbal cues and less belittling forces when communicating with their clients, formerly incarcerated individuals can restore their self-efficacy and progress towards successful employment attainment.<\/p>\n

If training for parole agents cannot put a complete end to the dwindling self-efficacy in the penal system, workforce development programs can prove powerful in promoting self-efficacy in the post incarceration stage. Job training allows individuals to master professional skills and step forward in the workforce. According to Creed et al.\u2019s ethnographic research with unemployed individuals undertaking occupational skills training programs, they conclude that \u201cjob-search self-efficacy will improve when unemployed people attend occupational skills training programs that do not specifically offer training in building confidence\u201d (22). In other words, building the professional skillset itself can restore self-efficacy among unemployed individuals. Since the social stigmas prompt employers to consider ex-offenders as detached individuals from the labor market,\u00a0 equipping formerly incarcerated individuals with the skills they are interested in can elevate their self-efficacy, which will buttress their employment outcome and reintegration success.<\/p>\n

Homeboy Industries is a gang rehabilitation and re-entry program based in Los Angeles,\u00a0 and their Workforce Development program epitomizes successful job training that stimulates self-efficacy restoration. Their occupational skills training programs affirms Creed et al.\u2019s research.\u00a0 Homeboy Industries offers general training like Work Readiness Programs and more technical training such as Solar Panel Installation Training, Confined Space Training, and Culinary Training\u00a0 Program. Homeboy Industries has a proven record that these career development efforts allow\u00a0 clients to \u201clearn, grow and create sustainable career growth opportunities while adding a\u00a0 perspective, dedication and tenacity many employers find attractive.\u201d For instance, Fernando, a trainee at Homeboy Industries, now sees his capability to overcome barriers and succeed in both the workplace and multiple aspects of his life, which is a positive representation of professional job training\u2019s role in buttressing self-efficacy restoration.<\/p>\n

Career-oriented training empowers formerly incarcerated individuals\u2019 self-efficacy by allowing them to see the wide range of skills they can capably master. Moreover, workforce development programs offering qualifications and field working experiences can dismantle, or at least reduce, the social stigma of labeling formerly incarcerated individuals as detached and uneducated laborers.<\/p>\n

In sum, self-efficacy should not be seen as an irreducible measurement, and factors contributing to formerly incarcerated individuals\u2019 diminishing self-efficacy must be considered when reevaluating existing reintegration programs. Dwindling self-efficacy stems from the belittlement that penetrates different stages in the United States\u2019 penal system, from imprisonment to parole. Furthermore, perceptible higher employment barriers from social stigmas discourage self efficacy to the next level. Policymakers and governmental authorities should consider developing training for parole officers to incorporate more supportive communication patterns, stepping forward in buttressing ex-offenders\u2019 reintegration starting from within the national penal system.\u00a0 In addition, non-governmental organizations offering post-incarceration programs may contemplate including job training so that individuals can find their positions in our society and transform into actively contributing members of their communities. Though policy-wise changes will not happen in a blink of an eye, exploring factors that contribute to self-efficacy,\u00a0 unemployment, and difficulties in reintegration is a worthy step to take to eradicate, or at least reduce, practices that hurt self-efficacy.<\/p>\n

References:<\/p>\n

Agadoni, Laura. \u201cFactors That Affect Low Self-Efficacy of Employees.\u201d Small Business \u2013 Chron.com, Chron.com, 21 Nov. 2017, smallbusiness.chron.com\/factors-affect-low selfefficacy-employees-43617.html.<\/p>\n

Cheliotis, Leonidas K., and Tasseli McKay. \u201cUneasy partnerships: Prisoner re-entry, family \u00a0problems and state coercion in the era of neoliberalism.\u201d\u00a0Punishment & Society<\/em>, 24.4, \u00a02022, pp. 692-714.<\/p>\n

Couloute, Lucius, and Daniel Kopf. \u201cOut of prison & out of work: Unemployment among \u00a0formerly incarcerated people.\u201d\u00a0Prison Policy Initiative<\/em>, July 2018.<\/p>\n

Creed, Peter A., Tracey D. Bloxsome, and Karla Johnston. \u201cSelf-esteem and self-efficacy \u00a0outcomes for unemployed individuals attending occupational skills training programs.\u201d \u00a0Community,\u00a0Work & Family<\/em>, 4.3, 2001, pp. 285-303.<\/p>\n

Li, Yangqiuting, Kyle Whitcomb, and Chandralekha Singh. \u201cHow perception of being \u00a0recognized or not recognized by instructors as a \u201cphysics person\u201d impacts male and \u00a0female students\u2019 self-efficacy and performance.\u201d The Physics Teacher 58.7, 2020, pp. 484-487.<\/p>\n

Petrich, Damon M., et al. \u201cPrisoner reentry programs.\u201d\u00a0Handbook of Issues in Criminal Justice\u00a0<\/em>\u00a0R<\/em>eform in the United States<\/em>. Springer, Cham, 2022, pp.335-363.<\/p>\n

Pitts, David. Lifer reentry & community reintegration: Qualitative evidence from Los Angeles. \u00a0Diss.\u00a0UC Irvine<\/em>, 2018.<\/p>\n

Regenold, Michael, Martin F. Sherman, and Mickey Fenzel. \u201cGetting Back to Work: Self Efficacy as a Predictor of Employment Outcome.\u201d\u00a0Psychiatric Rehabilitation Journal<\/em>, \u00a0vol. 22, no. 4, 1999, pp. 361-367.<\/p>\n

Roddy, Ariel L., and Merry Morash. \u201cThe connections of parole and probation agent \u00a0communication patterns with female offenders\u2019 job-seeking self-efficacy.\u201d\u00a0International\u00a0<\/em>\u00a0J<\/em>ournal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology,\u00a0<\/em>64.8, 2020, pp. 774-790.<\/p>\n

Saks, Alan M., Jelena Zikic, and Jessie Koen. \u201cJob search self-efficacy: Reconceptualizing the \u00a0construct and its measurement.\u201d\u00a0Journal of Vocational Behavior<\/em>, 86, 2015, pp. 104-114. Tyler, Imogen. Stigma: The machinery of inequality.\u00a0Bloomsbury Publishing<\/em>, 2020. Varghese, Femina P., et al. \u201cWillingness to work among males on parole: A quantitative and \u00a0qualitative analysis.\u201d\u00a0Psychological Services<\/em>, 2022.<\/p>\n

Welbeck, Timothy Nii-Okai. \u201cSpecter of Reform: Understanding the Violent Crime Control and\u00a0 Law Enforcement Act of 1994 and its Role in Expanding the Modern Prison Industrial\u00a0 Complex.\u201d\u00a0Arlen Specter Center Research Fellowship<\/em>, paper 7, May 2021.<\/p>\n

Werth, Robert. \u201cBreaking the rules the right way: Resisting parole logics and asserting autonomy\u00a0 in the USA.\u201d\u00a0Parole and Beyond<\/em>. Palgrave Macmillan, London, 2016, pp. 141-169. Homeboy Industries. Workforce development. March 8, 2021,<\/p>\n

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